This comprehensive study examines global trends in melanoma incidence from 1990 to 2020 and evaluates the evidence for causal relationships between different types of radiation exposure and melanoma development, utilizing data from multiple international cancer registries including SEER, GLOBOCAN, and IARC databases.

Background: The relationship between radiation exposure and melanoma development has been a subject of considerable scientific debate, with particular interest in distinguishing the effects of ionising radiation from ultraviolet radiation.

Methods: We conducted a comprehensive analysis of melanoma incidence data from multiple international cancer registries, including SEER, GLOBOCAN, and IARC databases. Data on ionising radiation exposure were obtained from atomic bomb survivor studies, occupational exposure cohorts, and medical radiation registries.

Results: Global melanoma incidence increased substantially from 1990 to 2020, with age-standardised rates rising significantly in multiple regions. The study provides definitive evidence about UV radiation's primary role in melanoma development while examining complex interactions between environmental factors and cancer incidence.

This article examines Karl Jaspers' epistemological framework through the lens of contemporary philosophical challenges, arguing that his concepts of boundary situations, transcendence, and methodological pluralism provide essential resources for addressing twenty-first century crises of knowledge and meaning whilst requiring critical reconstruction to encompass collective dimensions and cross-cultural perspectives.

Background: Writing in the shadow of two world wars, Jaspers developed a philosophical framework that anticipated many contemporary crises of knowledge, meaning, and authentic existence, yet his concepts require sophisticated extension to collective dimensions and cross-cultural contexts.

Methods: The investigation proceeds through systematic analysis of Jaspers' theoretical architecture, demonstrating how recent developments in collective phenomenology, postphenomenological technology studies, and cross-cultural methodology transform his originally individualistic framework.

Results: The study reveals how boundary situations manifest collectively whilst maintaining existential authenticity, with applications in contemporary psychiatric practice and environmental philosophy demonstrating the framework's continued relevance for navigating collective boundary situations.

This systematic review synthesizes recent discoveries in delirium pathophysiology, examining convergent anatomopathological pathways and evaluating artificial intelligence applications in clinical practice. Despite affecting 20-50% of hospitalized patients, delirium's pathophysiological mechanisms remain incompletely understood, hampering targeted therapeutic interventions.

Background: Delirium represents one of the most complex neuropsychiatric syndromes in healthcare, with striking variations across clinical contexts that provide important clues about underlying mechanisms.

Methods: Systematic review following PRISMA guidelines, searching multiple databases from January 2020 through December 2024. From 1,847 identified articles, 187 met inclusion criteria after systematic screening.

Results: Evidence strongly supports neuroinflammation as the central convergent mechanism, documented in 87% of reviewed studies. AI implementations achieved significant improvements in detection rates, with the Mount Sinai model increasing identification from 4.4% to 17.2% (p<0.001).

Recent advances in optical coherence tomography (OCT) have revealed significant alterations in retinal nerve fibre layer (RNFL) thickness and ganglion cell complex (GCC) integrity in Parkinson's disease patients, suggesting potential biomarker applications for disease monitoring and progression assessment.

Background: Parkinson's disease is characterised by progressive neurodegeneration extending beyond the central nervous system to affect retinal structures, which share embryological origins with the brain.

Methods: Systematic analysis of recent literature focusing on spectral-domain OCT studies investigating retinal structural changes in PD patients compared to healthy controls, with particular attention to meta-analyses and longitudinal studies.

Results: Consistent evidence demonstrates significant RNFL thinning in PD patients, particularly in the inferior quadrant, with mean thickness reductions of approximately 12-15 μm compared to controls. Ganglion cell-inner plexiform layer thinning shows even greater sensitivity.

The maintenance of homeostasis in animals requires intricate coordination between the nervous and endocrine systems, forming a unified neuroendocrine network that regulates physiological stability across multiple timescales. This comprehensive review synthesises contemporary understanding of neural-hormonal integration, examining molecular mechanisms, evolutionary adaptations, and technological innovations.

Background: Traditional studies of nervous and endocrine systems as distinct entities have evolved to reveal these systems function as an integrated neuroendocrine network, orchestrating physiological responses across temporal scales from milliseconds to seasons.

Methods: Systematic analysis incorporating traditional literature review with novel computational text mining approaches, identifying key themes in neuroendocrine homeostasis research from 2020-2025.

Results: Single-cell transcriptomics, optogenetic manipulation, and microbiome interactions have fundamentally altered conceptual frameworks, whilst mathematical modelling and artificial intelligence offer unprecedented predictive capabilities for understanding feedback mechanisms across nested hierarchies.

Breast carcinomas represent a heterogeneous group of malignant neoplasms that constitute the most frequently diagnosed cancer amongst women worldwide, with an estimated 2.3 million new cases annually according to recent global cancer statistics. This comprehensive review examines the current understanding of breast carcinoma pathogenesis, encompassing the multifaceted hypotheses underlying tumour development, the complex array of risk factors contributing to disease susceptibility, and the diverse biological behaviours exhibited by different molecular subtypes.

Background: The pathogenesis of breast carcinomas involves a multistep process characterised by the accumulation of genetic alterations and environmental influences, progressing from normal epithelial cells through hyperplasia, premalignant changes, and in situ carcinoma to invasive disease.

Methods: Contemporary molecular classification systems, incorporating immunohistochemical assessment of oestrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, and human epidermal growth factor receptor expression, have revolutionised therapeutic approaches and prognostic stratification.

Results: The biological behaviour of breast carcinomas varies significantly across molecular subtypes, with luminal A tumours demonstrating indolent growth patterns and favourable prognosis, whilst triple-negative breast cancers exhibit aggressive characteristics with propensity for early metastasis and treatment resistance.

Differential Entangled Topology (DET) proposes a mathematical framework for analysing evolving topological structure in dynamical systems. We present a formalisation of DET on smooth manifolds, define entanglement functionals derived from geodesic interactions and clique complexes, and introduce computable surrogates for topological entropy based on families of Vietoris-Rips complexes across thresholds.

Background: The methodology connects differential topology, stochastic calculus, and topological data analysis (TDA), motivated by a broader research programme to develop DET beyond its original context in consciousness modelling to complex networks, information-theoretic characterisations, and quantum-inspired systems.

Methods: A stochastic-deterministic flow on the sphere S² illustrates how entanglement indices and Betti curves evolve as control parameters change, using computational methods from topological data analysis.

Results: The results show that changes in noise and rotational shear elevate an entanglement index and shift Betti curves in ways consistent with qualitative phase transitions, providing a roadmap for proof-theoretic progress and scalable computation.

Endometrial carcinoma represents the most prevalent gynaecological malignancy in developed nations, with an alarming global incidence exceeding 400,000 cases annually and a mortality rate that continues to escalate at 1.3% per year. This comprehensive review synthesises contemporary understanding of endometrial carcinoma pathogenesis, examining the complex interplay between hormonal, genetic, and environmental risk factors.

Background: The traditional dualistic classification system has been revolutionised by The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) molecular classification, which identifies four distinct molecular subgroups with unique biological behaviour, prognostic implications, and therapeutic vulnerabilities.

Methods: Critical evaluation of current hypotheses regarding endometrial carcinogenesis, from the established oestrogen-driven pathway to more aggressive variants arising through p53-mediated pathways independent of hormonal stimulation.

Results: Contemporary epidemiological data reveal significant racial and socioeconomic disparities, with obesity emerging as the predominant modifiable risk factor, accounting for approximately 40% of cases through mechanisms involving peripheral aromatisation, insulin resistance, and chronic inflammation.

Hodgkin's lymphoma (HL) represents a unique and enigmatic malignancy within the spectrum of lymphoid neoplasms, characterised by the presence of distinctive Reed-Sternberg cells within a complex inflammatory microenvironment. This comprehensive review examines the current understanding of HL pathogenesis, encompassing both Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-positive and EBV-negative disease mechanisms.

Background: The biological behaviour of HL is distinguished by its bimodal age distribution, characteristic pattern of contiguous lymph node spread, and remarkable responsiveness to therapeutic intervention, with cure rates approaching 95% in contemporary practice.

Methods: Recent advances in molecular biology have elucidated the critical role of constitutive NF-κB and JAK/STAT pathway activation in disease pathogenesis, alongside sophisticated immune evasion mechanisms.

Results: The tumour microenvironment in HL demonstrates unique characteristics, with malignant Hodgkin and Reed-Sternberg cells comprising less than 5% of the cellular population whilst orchestrating a complex milieu of reactive inflammatory cells.

The evolution of nervous systems represents one of the most remarkable achievements in biological complexity, spanning from simple nerve nets in early metazoans to the sophisticated neural architectures observed in contemporary organisms. This comprehensive review examines the evolutionary trajectory of nervous systems, beginning with the fundamental origins of neurons and progressing through the development of centralised neural networks.

Background: We explore the biophysical mechanisms underlying neuronal communication, including the establishment and maintenance of membrane potentials, the generation and propagation of action potentials, and the diverse forms of synaptic transmission.

Methods: Particular attention is devoted to the mathematical frameworks that describe these processes, notably the Hodgkin-Huxley model and its derivatives, which provide quantitative insights into neural dynamics.

Results: A central focus is placed upon the concept of the tripartite synapse, which incorporates glial cells as active participants in synaptic function, fundamentally altering our understanding of neural communication from a bipartite to a tripartite model.